The ruins of Xanthos are located near the village of Kınık in the Seydikemer district of Muğla Province. Xanthos was the most important and powerful city of Lycia during the Dynastic period. Its Lycian name was Arnña. Archaeological evidence dates the city back to at least the 7th century BCE. The river flowing past the site, known today as the Eşen River, appears as Siyanta in Hittite sources and as Xanthos in Greek.
The site was first identified in 1838 by Charles Fellows. Many artifacts removed from Xanthos through his efforts are now exhibited in the British Museum. Fellows’ work also played a key role in bringing Lycian civilization to international scholarly attention. The first scientific excavations began in 1950 and have continued intermittently to the present. Xanthos is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List together with its religious sanctuary, Letoon.
The city was built on a slope along the eastern bank of the Xanthos (Eşen) River, at the widest part of the Xanthos Valley. The urban area covers approximately 30 hectares. The coastline lies approximately 7.5 km to the south; however, due to alluvial deposits carried by the river, the distance would have been shorter in antiquity. Despite this, Xanthos was not a port city.
Although the remains of three temples dating to the 5th century BCE have been identified, none survived into the Roman period, and no Roman-period temple has been found. This may be explained by the proximity of Letoon—the principal cult center of Lycia—located only a few kilometers away and administratively connected to Xanthos. Very few remains predate the destruction caused by the Persian invasion in the mid-6th century BCE. Monumental tombs and sections of the city walls constitute the primary remains of the Dynastic period, while Hellenistic remains are scarce. Most visible structures today belong to the Roman period and later. Lion and bull reliefs discovered during excavations conducted by Jacques des Courtils between 1996 and 2011 have been dated to the 7th century BCE and are considered examples of Archaic Lycian art.
Northern Necropolis of Xanthos
The eastern slope of the Roman acropolis, in the northern part of the city, forms the principal necropolis area. Most of the Roman-period rock-cut and sarcophagus tombs are located north of the Dynastic-period fortification walls that run southeast–northwest across the slope. The Merehi and Lions sarcophagi, dating to the Dynastic period, are also located here. In addition, the monumental tombs of Payava and Ahqqadi, along with several other Dynastic-period tombs, are situated around the so-called Acropolis Pillar in the southern section of the slope, within the city walls.
Nereid Monument
The Nereid Monument is the earliest known monumental tomb constructed in the form of a Greek temple and is thought to have inspired later structures such as the Mausoleum at Halicarnassos. It was first discovered by Charles Fellows. The monument had collapsed—likely due to an earthquake—and its elements were found scattered across the site. Through Fellows’ efforts, the reliefs and architectural components were transported to England and are now exhibited in the British Museum.
Although its exact date is uncertain, the monument is generally dated to ca. 390–380 BCE and is widely believed to have been built for the dynast Erbinna (Arbinas). Architecturally, it resembles an Ionic temple set upon an 8 m-high podium. The upper platform measures approximately 10.2 × 6.8 m. The cella is surrounded by four Ionic columns on the short sides and six on the long sides. The structure is constructed of white marble, set upon a limestone core.
The monument is richly decorated with multiple frieze bands: two surrounding the podium, and additional friezes along the cella walls and beneath the roof. The pediments on the east and west sides are also sculpturally decorated. The arrangement of these friezes remains debated. The reconstruction displayed in the British Museum represents only the eastern façade.
The monument takes its modern name from the female statues placed between the columns, whose flowing garments and associated marine imagery recall the Nereids of Greek mythology. However, Thurstan Robinson has suggested that these figures may instead represent the consorts (Eliyãna) of the goddess Leto, as mentioned in the trilingual inscription from Letoon. Evidence suggests that the monument contained four burial couches (klinai), indicating its use as a family tomb.
Lion Pillar Tomb
The Lion Pillar Tomb, located east of the Roman acropolis, is generally considered the earliest example of a Lycian pillar tomb based on stylistic analysis. The burial chamber, carved from the top of a column approximately 3 m high, was originally decorated with reliefs. Drawings made by Charles Fellows in 1838 show that the monument was still standing at that time. The reliefs were later removed and are now in the British Museum, while the pillar itself remains on site. The tomb’s owner is unknown. It is dated to the mid-6th century BCE.
Harpy Tomb
The Harpy Tomb consists of a monolithic pillar surmounted by a funerary chamber and is dated to ca. 480–470 BCE. It is generally attributed to the Xanthian dynast Kybernis, who is thought to have died from wounds sustained during the Persian Wars (possibly at Plataea or Salamis) under Xerxes.
The chamber walls were originally decorated with reliefs, now housed in the British Museum; plaster casts were installed on the monument at Xanthos in 1957. The monument takes its name from the winged female figures—identified as Harpies in Greek mythology—depicted in the reliefs. The total height of the monument is 8.87 m, including the 5.43 m-high monolithic pillar.
A cavity carved into the top of the pillar forms part of the burial chamber, which reaches a depth of approximately 2.3 m when combined with the relief panels. In later periods, the chamber was reused by a Christian hermit, who left religious drawings on the back of the relief slabs, as noted by Fellows. The lid, which appears to consist of three stacked elements, is in fact carved from a single block.
Adjacent to the Harpy Tomb is the so-called “Sarcophagus Pillar,” a hybrid monument combining an ashlar-built base with a Lycian sarcophagus above. The base dates to the Dynastic period, while the sarcophagus is assigned to the Hellenistic period.
Inscribed Monument of Xanthos
Also known as the Inscribed Pillar or the Xanthian Obelisk, this monument is a pillar tomb typical of the Lycian Dynastic period. Located northeast of the Roman agora, it stands on a two-stepped rock base. The upper burial chamber has not survived, but it is thought to have been richly decorated and possibly surmounted by a statue of the dynast—likely Xeriga (Xerẽi).
The preserved portion of the monument measures 4.04 m in height, though its original height is estimated at approximately 9.71 m (excluding the statue). The pillar bears a lengthy Lycian inscription (TL 44) on all four sides, along with a Greek epigram on the north face. This is the longest Lycian inscription known to date.
Payava Tomb
The Payava Tomb is among the most impressive funerary monuments not only in Xanthos but in all of Lycia. It was discovered by Charles Fellows in 1838 and later transported to England. The monument originally stood 7.85 m high and consists of a Lycian-style sarcophagus set atop a monolithic pillar. It is the largest sarcophagus found at Xanthos and is distinguished by its elaborate decoration.
To facilitate transport, the monument was dismantled; the reconstructed sarcophagus, approximately 3.5 m high, is now displayed in the British Museum. Its original location on the southeastern slope of the northern acropolis commanded extensive views over the city and the Xanthos Valley.
Lycian inscriptions (TL 40) on all four sides identify the tomb’s owner as Payava. The mention of the Persian satrap Autophradates allows the monument to be dated to around 360 BCE. While the overall form reflects traditional Lycian wooden architectural models, the decorative program exhibits both Greek and Persian artistic influences.
Dancers Tomb
The Dancers Tomb is smaller and less elaborately decorated than the Payava Tomb. The sarcophagus rests on a substantial base set upon two steps and is topped by an ogival lid. When discovered by Charles Fellows, the chest remained in situ, while the lid had fallen and broken into two pieces.
The restored monument remains in its original location, on a hill overlooking the city walls and eastern terraces. The chest is undecorated and does not imitate Lycian wooden architecture; decoration is confined to the lid, which features hunting and battle scenes on its long sides. The tomb takes its name from the dancing figures depicted on the short sides of the lid. It is dated to the mid- to late 4th century BCE.
Merehi Tomb
The Merehi Tomb was discovered by Charles Fellows beneath the northern rocky slopes. At the time of discovery, the lower part had been displaced—likely by an earthquake—and the lid was partially buried and inverted. The lid was later transported to England and is now in the British Museum.
Comparable in size to the Payava sarcophagus, the lid measures 3.17 m in length. Its decorative program is similar, though limited to the lid itself. Scenes of four-horse chariots appear on both long sides, accompanied by hunting scenes: a panther on one side and the Chimera on the other. For this reason, Fellows initially referred to it as the “Chimera Tomb.” A Lycian inscription (TL 43) identifies the tomb’s owner as Merehi. Based on stylistic parallels, it is dated to the early 4th century BCE.
Lions Tomb
The Lions Tomb, located on the northern slope of the Roman acropolis, is considered the earliest known sarcophagus at Xanthos and is dated to the late 5th century BCE. It was documented by Charles Fellows during his second visit in 1840.
The 1 m-high base and its three supporting steps are carved directly from bedrock. The base is solid and does not contain a burial chamber. Reliefs on the north face depict two lions attacking a bull. The sarcophagus chest is fragmented, and its remains are scattered. A Lycian inscription (TL 46), though poorly preserved, is visible on the north face. The lid, once fully decorated, has been almost entirely destroyed.
Ahqqadi Tomb
The Ahqqadi Tomb is located on the southeastern slope of the Roman acropolis, approximately 100 m southwest of the Payava Tomb. Including its three-stepped base, hyposorion, and sarcophagus, it reaches a height of 6.9 m.
Although similar in design to the Payava Tomb, it is more slender and largely undecorated, apart from lion-head ornaments on the lid. Despite its simplicity, the craftsmanship is highly refined. A Lycian inscription (TL 36) on the north face identifies the owner as Ahqqadi. The monument is dated to the first half of the 4th century BCE.
South Gate (Vespasian Gate) of Xanthos
The South Gate of Xanthos is one of the city’s three main entrances, the others being located to the east and west. It is particularly notable for its well-preserved single-arched structure dating to the Roman Imperial period. An inscription above the arch indicates that it was constructed during the reign of Vespasian in the 1st century CE.
The large polygonal masonry blocks flanking the southern façade of the arched gate belong to earlier defensive towers, which are dated to the Late Archaic or Early Dynastic period. Three separate dedicatory inscriptions on these blocks indicate that they were reused and supplemented during the Hellenistic period.
The metopes on the Doric frieze above the arch are interpreted as depictions of the busts of Leto, Apollo, and Artemis. The gate is also known as the Arch of Sextus Marcius Priscus, the Lycian governor who commissioned this monumental entrance in dedication to Emperor Vespasian.
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Images:
British Museum
C. Fellows, 1839, 1841, 1847, 1848
O. Benndorf & G. Niemann, 1884
F. N. Pryce, 1929
P. Demargne & P. Coupel, 1969
Götter, Heroen, Herrscher in Lykien, 1990
J. Borchhardt et al. 1997-1999
J. des Courtils, 2003
N. Başgelen, 2005
Jastrow, 2006
Mike Peel, 2010
Carole Raddato, 2012
M. Seyer, 2017
Ertuğrul Anıl, 2022
Reha Özer, 2022
Tayfun Bilgin, 2022, 2024
Bora Bilgin, 2022, 2025